At the beginning of the 18th century, a completely new literary direction, which, first of all, focuses on the feelings and emotions of a person. Only at the end of the century does it reach Russia, but, unfortunately, it finds a response here among a small number of writers... All this is about the sentimentalism of the 18th century, and if you are interested in this topic, then continue reading.

Let's start with the definition of this literary trend, which determined new principles for illuminating the image and character of a person. What is “sentimentalism” in literature and art? The term comes from French word"sentiment", which means "feeling". It means a direction in culture where artists of words, notes and brushes emphasize the emotions and feelings of the characters. Time frame of the period: for Europe - 20s of the XVIII - 80s of the XVIII; For Russia, this is the end of the 18th century - the beginning of the 19th century.

Sentimentalism specifically in literature is characterized by the following definition: it is a literary movement that came after classicism, in which the cult of the soul predominates.

The history of sentimentalism began in England. It was there that the first poems of James Thomson (1700 - 1748) were written. His works “Winter”, “Spring”, “Summer” and “Autumn”, which were later combined into one collection, described simple rural life. Quiet, peaceful everyday life, incredible landscapes and fascinating moments from the life of peasants - all this is revealed to readers. The author’s main idea is to show how good life is away from all the bustle and confusion of the city.

After some time, another English poet, Thomas Gray (1716 - 1771), also tried to interest the reader in landscape poems. In order not to be like Thomson, he added poor, sad and melancholy characters with whom people should empathize.

But not all poets and writers loved nature so much. Samuel Richardson (1689 - 1761) was the first representative of symbolism who described only the life and feelings of his heroes. No landscapes!

Lawrence Sterne (1713 - 1768) combined two favorite themes for England - love and nature - in his work “A Sentimental Journey”.

Then sentimentalism “migrated” to France. The main representatives were Abbot Prevost (1697 - 1763) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778). The intense intrigue of love affairs in the works “Manon Lescaut” and “Julia, or the New Heloise” made all French women read these touching and sensual novels.

This marks the end of the period of sentimentalism in Europe. Then it begins in Russia, but we will talk about this later.

Differences from classicism and romanticism

The object of our research is sometimes confused with other literary movements, between which it has become a kind of transitional link. So what are the differences?

Differences between sentimentalism and romanticism:

• Firstly, at the head of sentimentalism are feelings, and at the head of romanticism is the human personality straightened to its full height;
• Secondly, the sentimental hero is opposed to the city and the harmful influence of civilization, and the romantic hero is opposed to society;
• And thirdly, the hero of sentimentalism is kind and simple, love occupies a place in his life main role, and the hero of romanticism is melancholic and gloomy, his love often does not save, on the contrary, it plunges him into irrevocable despair.

Differences between sentimentalism and classicism:

• Classicism is characterized by the presence of “ speaking names”, the relationship of time and place, the rejection of the unreasonable, the division into “positive” and “negative” heroes. While sentimentalism “glorifies” the love of nature, naturalness, and trust in man. The characters are not so clear-cut; their images are interpreted in two ways. Strict canons disappear (there is no unity of place and time, there is no choice in favor of duty or punishment for the wrong choice). The sentimental hero looks for the good in everyone, and he is not chained into a template in the form of a label instead of a name;
• Classicism is also characterized by its straightforwardness and ideological orientation: in the choice between duty and feeling, it is appropriate to choose the first. In sentimentalism it’s the other way around: only simple and sincere emotions are the criterion for assessing a person’s inner world.
• If in classicism the main characters were noble or even had divine origin, but in sentimentalism representatives of the poor classes come to the fore: burghers, peasants, honest workers.

Main features

The main features of sentimentalism are generally considered to include:

• The main thing is spirituality, kindness and sincerity;
• Much attention is paid to nature, it changes in unison with the character’s state of mind;
• Interest in inner world a person, to his feelings;
• Lack of straightforwardness and clear direction;
• Subjective view of the world;
• The lower stratum of the population = rich inner world;
• Idealization of the village, criticism of civilization and the city;
• Tragic love story is the focus of the author's attention;
• The style of the works is clearly replete with emotional remarks, complaints and even speculations on the reader’s sensitivity.

Genres representing this literary movement:

• Elegy- a genre of poetry characterized by the sad mood of the author and a sad theme;
• Novel- a detailed narrative about an event or the life of a hero;
• Epistolary genre- works in the form of letters;
• Memoirs- a work where the author talks about events in which he personally participated, or about his life in general;
• Diary– personal notes with impressions of what is happening for a specific period of time;
• Trips- a travel diary with personal impressions of new places and acquaintances.

It is customary to distinguish two opposing directions within the framework of sentimentalism:

• Noble sentimentalism first considers the moral side of life, and then the social one. Spiritual qualities come first;
• Revolutionary sentimentalism mainly focused on the idea of ​​social equality. As a hero, we see a tradesman or peasant who suffered from a soulless and cynical representative of the upper class.

Features of sentimentalism in literature:

• Detailed description of nature;
• The beginnings of psychologism;
• The author's emotionally rich style
• The topic of social inequality is gaining popularity
• The topic of death is discussed in detail.

Signs of sentimentalism:

• The story is about the soul and feelings of the hero;
• The dominance of the inner world, “human nature” over the conventions of a hypocritical society;
• The tragedy of strong but unrequited love;
• Refusal of a rational view of the world.

Of course, the main theme of all works is love. But, for example, in the work of Alexander Radishchev “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” (1790) the key theme is the people and their life. In Schiller's drama "Cunning and Love" the author speaks out against the arbitrariness of the authorities and class prejudices. That is, the topic of the direction can be the most serious.

Unlike representatives of other literary movements, sentimentalist writers became involved in the lives of their heroes. They rejected the principle of “objective” discourse.

The essence of sentimentalism is to show the ordinary everyday life of people and their sincere feelings. All this happens against the backdrop of nature, which complements the picture of events. The main task of the author is to make readers feel all the emotions along with the characters and empathize with them.

Features of sentimentalism in painting

We have already discussed the characteristic features of this trend in the literature earlier. Now it's the turn of painting.

Sentimentalism in painting is most clearly represented in our country. First of all, it is associated with one of the most famous artists Vladimir Borovikovsky (1757 - 1825). Portraits predominate in his work. When depicting female image the artist tried to show her natural beauty and rich inner world. Most famous works considered: “Lizonka and Dasha”, “Portrait of M.I. Lopukhina" and "Portrait of E.N. Arsenyeva." It is also worth noting Nikolai Ivanovich Argunov, who was known for his portraits of the Sheremetyev couple. In addition to paintings, Russian sentimentalists also distinguished themselves in the technique of John Flaxman, namely his painting on dishes. The most famous is the “Service with a Green Frog”, which can be seen in the St. Petersburg Hermitage.

Of the foreign artists, only three are known - Richard Brompton (3 years worked in St. Petersburg, significant work - “Portraits of Prince Alexander and Konstantin Pavlovich” and “Portrait of Prince George of Wales”), Etienne Maurice Falconet (specialized in landscapes) and Anthony Van Dyck (specialized in costume portraits).

Representatives

1. James Thomson (1700 - 1748) - Scottish playwright and poet;
2. Edward Young (1683 - 1765) - English poet, founder of “cemetery poetry”;
3. Thomas Gray (1716 - 1771) - English poet, literary critic;
4. Lawrence Sterne (1713 - 1768) - English writer;
5. Samuel Richardson (1689 - 1761) - English writer and poet;
6. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778) - French poet, writer, composer;
7. Abbe Prevost (1697 - 1763) - French poet.

Examples of works

1. James Thomson's collection of The Seasons (1730);
2. "The Country Cemetery" (1751) and the ode "To Spring" by Thomas Gray;
3. "Pamela" (1740), "Clarissa Harleau" (1748) and "Sir Charles Grandinson" (1754) by Samuel Richardson;
4. "Tristram Shandy" (1757 - 1768) and "A Sentimental Journey" (1768) by Laurence Sterne;
5. "Manon Lescaut" (1731), "Cleveland" and "Life of Marianne" by Abbé Prévost;
6. "Julia, or the New Heloise" by Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1761).

Russian sentimentalism

Sentimentalism appeared in Russia around 1780 - 1790. This phenomenon gained popularity thanks to the translation of various Western works, including “The Sorrows of Young Werther” by Johann Wolfgang Goethe, the parable story “Paul and Virginie” by Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, “Julia, or the New Heloise” by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the novels of Samuel Richardson.

“Letters of a Russian Traveler” - it was with this work by Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766 - 1826) that the period of sentimentalism in Russian literature began. But then a story was written that became the most significant in the entire history of this movement. We are talking about “” (1792) by Karamzin. In this work you can feel all the emotions, the innermost movements of the souls of the characters. The reader empathizes with them throughout the book. The success of “Poor Lisa” inspired Russian writers to create similar works, but less successful (for example, “Unhappy Margarita” and “The History of Poor Marya” by Gavriil Petrovich Kamenev (1773 - 1803)).

We can also include the earlier work of Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky (1783 - 1852), namely his ballad “”, as sentimentalism. Later he wrote the story “Maryina Roshcha” in the style of Karamzin.

Alexander Radishchev is the most controversial sentimentalist. There is still debate about his belonging to this movement. The genre and style of the work “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” speak in favor of his involvement in the movement. The author often used exclamations and tearful lyrical digressions. For example, the exclamation was heard as a refrain from the pages: “Oh, cruel landowner!”

The year 1820 is called the end of sentimentalism in our country and the birth of a new direction - romanticism.

One of the unique features of Russian sentimentalism is that each work tried to teach the reader something. It served as a mentor. Within the framework of the direction, real psychologism arose, which had not happened before. This era can also be called the “age of exclusive reading,” since only spiritual literature could direct a person to the true path and help him understand his inner world.

Hero types

All sentimentalists portrayed ordinary people, not "citizens". We always see a subtle, sincere, natural nature that does not hesitate to show its real feelings. The author always considers it from the side of the inner world, testing its strength with the test of love. He never puts her in any framework, but allows her to develop and grow spiritually.

The main meaning of any sentimental work has been and will only be a person.

Language Feature

Simple, understandable and emotionally charged language is the basis of the style of sentimentalism. It is also characterized by voluminous lyrical digressions with appeals and exclamations from the author, where he indicates his position and morality of the work. Almost every text uses exclamation marks, diminutive forms of words, vernacular, and expressive vocabulary. Thus, at this stage the literary language becomes closer to the language of the people, making reading accessible to a wider audience. For our country, this meant that the art of words was reaching a new level. Secular prose written with ease and artistry receives recognition, and not the ponderous and tasteless works of imitators, translators or fanatics.

Interesting? Save it on your wall!

In the mid-18th century, the process of decomposition of classicism began in Europe (in connection with the destruction of the absolute monarchy in France and other countries), as a result of which a new literary direction appeared - sentimentalism. England is considered to be its homeland, since its typical representatives were English writers. The term “sentimentalism” itself appeared in literature after the publication of “A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy” by Laurence Stern.

Catherine the Great vault

In the 60-70s, the rapid development of capitalist relations began in Russia, resulting in the growing phenomenon of the bourgeoisie. The growth of cities increased, which led to the emergence of the third estate, whose interests are reflected in Russian sentimentalism in literature. At this time, that layer of society, which is now called the intelligentsia, begins to form. The growth of industry turns Russia into a strong power, and numerous military victories contribute to the rise of national self-awareness. In 1762, during the reign of Catherine II, nobles and peasants received many privileges. The Empress thereby tried to create a myth about her reign, showing herself to be an enlightened monarch in Europe.

The policies of Catherine the Second largely impeded progressive phenomena in society. So, in 1767, a special commission was convened to examine the state of the new code. In her work, the empress argued that an absolute monarchy is necessary not to take away freedom from people, but to achieve a good goal. However, sentimentalism in literature meant depicting the life of the common people, so not a single writer mentioned Catherine the Great in his works.

The most important event of this period was the peasant war led by Emelyan Pugachev, after which many nobles sided with the peasants. Already in the 70s, mass societies began to appear in Russia, whose ideas of freedom and equality influenced the formation of a new movement. Under such conditions, Russian sentimentalism in literature began to take shape.

Conditions for the emergence of a new direction

In the second half of the 18th century there was a struggle against feudal orders in Europe. Enlightenmentists defended the interests of the so-called third estate, which often found itself oppressed. Classicists glorified the merits of monarchs in their works, and sentimentalism (in Russian literature) became the opposite direction in this regard several decades later. Representatives advocated the equality of people and put forward the concept of a natural society and natural man. They were guided by the criterion of reasonableness: the feudal system, in their opinion, was unreasonable. This idea was reflected in Daniel Defoe's novel Robinson Crusoe, and later in the works of Mikhail Karamzin. In France, Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s work “Julia, or the new Heloise” becomes a striking example and manifesto; in Germany - “The Sorrows of Young Werther” by Johann Goethe. In these books, the tradesman is portrayed as an ideal person, but in Russia everything is different.

Sentimentalism in literature: features of the movement

Style is born in a fierce ideological struggle with classicism. These currents oppose each other in all positions. If the state was depicted by classicism, then a person with all his feelings was depicted by sentimentalism.

Representatives in literature introduce new genre forms: romance novel, a psychological story, as well as confessional prose (diary, travel notes, travel). Sentimentalism, unlike classicism, was far from poetic forms.

The literary movement affirms the transcendental value of the human personality. In Europe, the tradesman was portrayed as ideal person, whereas in Russia the peasants have always been oppressed.

Sentimentalists introduce alliteration and descriptions of nature into their works. The second technique is used to display psychological state person.

Two directions of sentimentalism

In Europe, writers smoothed out social conflicts, while in the works of Russian authors, on the contrary, they intensified. As a result, two directions of sentimentalism were formed: noble and revolutionary. The representative of the first is Nikolai Karamzin, known as the author of the story " Poor Lisa"Despite the fact that the conflict occurs due to the clash of interests of the high and low classes, the author puts the conflict in the first place moral, not social. Noble sentimentalism did not advocate the abolition of serfdom. The author believed that “peasant women also know how to love.”

Revolutionary sentimentalism in literature advocated the abolition of serfdom. Alexander Radishchev chose just a few words as the epigraph for his book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”: “The monster barks, mischievously, laughs and barks.” That's how he imagined it collective image serfdom.

Genres in sentimentalism

In this literary direction, the leading role was given to works written in prose. There were no strict boundaries, so genres were often mixed.

N. Karamzin, I. Dmitriev, A. Petrov used private correspondence in their work. It is worth noting that not only writers turned to him, but also personalities who became famous in other areas, such as M. Kutuzov. A novel-journey in its own way literary heritage left by A. Radishchev, and the novel-education by M. Karamzin. Sentimentalists also found application in the field of drama: M. Kheraskov wrote “tearful dramas”, and N. Nikolev - “comic operas”.

Sentimentalism in the literature of the 18th century was represented by geniuses who worked in several other genres: satirical tale and fable, idyll, elegy, romance, song.

"Fashionable wife" by I. I. Dmitrieva

Often sentimentalist writers turned to classicism in their work. Ivan Ivanovich Dmitriev preferred to work with satirical genres and ode, which is why his fairy tale called “The Fashionable Wife” is written in poetic form. General Prolaz, in his old age, decides to marry a young girl who is looking for an opportunity to send him for new things. In the absence of her husband, Premila receives her lover Milovzor right in her room. He is young, handsome, a ladies' man, but a naughty man and a talker. The remarks of the heroes of "The Fashionable Wife" are empty and cynical - with this Dmitriev is trying to portray the depraved atmosphere prevailing in the noble class.

"Poor Liza" by N. M. Karamzin

In the story, the author talks about the love story of a peasant woman and a master. Lisa is a poor girl who became a victim of betrayal by the rich young man Erast. The poor thing lived and breathed only for her lover, but did not forget the simple truth - a wedding between representatives of different social classes cannot take place. A rich peasant wooes Lisa, but she refuses him, expecting exploits on the part of her lover. However, Erast deceives the girl, saying that he is going to serve, and at that moment he is looking for a rich widowed bride. Emotional experiences, impulses of passion, loyalty and betrayal are feelings that sentimentalism often depicted in literature. During the last meeting, the young man offers Lisa one hundred rubles as a token of gratitude for the love she gave him during their dating days. Unable to bear the breakup, the girl commits suicide.

A. N. Radishchev and his “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”

The writer was born into a wealthy noble family, but despite this, he was interested in the problem of inequality of social classes. His famous work“Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” in the genre direction can be attributed to travel popular at that time, but the division into chapters was not a mere formality: each of them examined a separate side of reality.

Initially, the book was perceived as travel notes and successfully passed through the censors, but Catherine the Second, having familiarized herself with its contents personally, called Radishchev “a rebel worse than Pugachev.” The chapter "Novgorod" describes the depraved morals of society, in "Lyuban" - the problem of the peasantry, in "Chudovo" we are talking about the indifference and cruelty of officials.

Sentimentalism in the works of V. A. Zhukovsky

The writer lived at the turn of two centuries. At the end of the 18th century, the leading genre in Russian literature was sentimentalism, and in the 19th it was replaced by realism and romanticism. Early works Vasily Zhukovsky were written in accordance with the traditions of Karamzin. “Maryina Roshcha” is a beautiful story about love and suffering, and the poem “To Poetry” sounds like a heroic call to accomplish feats. In his best elegy, “Rural Cemetery,” Zhukovsky reflects on the meaning of human life. A major role in the emotional coloring of the work is played by the animated landscape, in which the willow slumbers, the oak groves tremble, and the day turns pale. Thus, sentimentalism in the literature of the 19th century is represented by the work of a few writers, among whom was Zhukovsky, but in 1820 the movement ceased to exist.

Sentimentalism is a movement in art and literature that became widespread after classicism. If the cult of reason dominated in classicism, then in sentimentalism the cult of the soul comes first. The authors of works written in the spirit of sentimentalism appeal to the reader’s perception and try to awaken certain emotions and feelings with the help of the work.

Sentimentalism originated in Western Europe at the beginning of the 18th century. This direction reached Russia only towards the end of the century and took a dominant position at the beginning of the 19th century.

The new direction in literature demonstrates completely new features:

• The authors of the works assign the main role to feelings. The most important personality quality is the ability to sympathize and empathize.
• If in classicism the main characters were mainly nobles and rich people, then in sentimentalism they are ordinary people. The authors of works from the era of sentimentalism promote the idea that a person’s inner world does not depend on his social status.
• Adherents of sentimentalism wrote about fundamental human values: love, friendship, kindness, compassion
• The authors of this movement saw their calling as to console ordinary people oppressed by deprivation, adversity and lack of money, and to open their souls towards virtue.

Sentimentalism in Russia

Sentimentalism in our country had two currents:

• Noble. This direction was quite loyal. Speaking about feelings and the human soul, the authors did not advocate the abolition of serfdom. Within the framework of this direction, Karamzin’s famous work “Poor Liza” was written. The story was based on class conflict. As a result, the author puts forward the human factor, and only then looks at social differences. However, the story does not protest against the existing order of things in society.
• Revolutionary. In contrast to “noble sentimentalism,” the works of the revolutionary movement advocated the abolition of serfdom. They put the person in first place with his right to a free life and a happy existence.

Sentimentalism, unlike classicism, did not have clear canons for writing works. That is why authors working in this direction have created new literary genres, and also skillfully mixed them within one work.

(Sentimentalism in Radishchev's work "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow")

Russian sentimentalism is a special trend, which, due to the cultural and historical characteristics of Russia, differed from a similar trend in Europe. The main distinguishing features of Russian sentimentalism include the following: the presence of conservative views on the social structure and a tendency toward enlightenment, instruction, and teaching.

The development of sentimentalism in Russia can be divided into 4 stages, 3 of which occurred in the 18th century.

XVIII century

• Stage I

In 1760-1765, the magazines “Useful Amusement” and “Free Hours” began to be published in Russia, which rallied around a group of talented poets led by Kheraskov. It is believed that it was Kheraskov who laid the foundation for Russian sentimentalism.

In the works of poets of this period, nature and sensitivity begin to act as criteria for social values. The authors focus their attention on the individual and his soul.

• Stage II (since 1776)

This period marks the heyday of Muravyov’s creativity. Muravyov pays great attention to the human soul and his feelings.

An important event of the second stage was the release of the comic opera “Rosana and Love” by Nikolev. It is in this genre that many works of Russian sentimentalists are subsequently written. The basis of these works was the conflict between the arbitrariness of the landowners and the powerless existence of serfs. Moreover spiritual world peasants are often revealed as richer and more intense than the inner world of rich landowners.

• III stage (late 18th century)

()

This period is considered the most fruitful for Russian sentimentalism. It was at this time that Karamzin created his famous works. Magazines began to appear that promoted the values ​​and ideals of the sentimentalists.

19th century

• IV stage (early 19th century)

Crisis stage for Russian sentimentalism. The trend is gradually losing its popularity and relevance in society. Many modern historians and literary scholars believe that sentimentalism became a fleeting transitional stage from classicism to romanticism. Sentimentalism as a literary trend quickly exhausted itself, however, the trend opened the way to the further development of world literature.

Sentimentalism in foreign literature

England is considered the birthplace of sentimentalism as a literary movement. The starting point can be called the work “The Seasons” by Thomson. This collection of poems reveals to the reader the beauty and splendor of the surrounding nature. The author, with his descriptions, tries to evoke certain feelings in the reader, to instill in him a love for the amazing beauties of the world around him.

After Thomson, Thomas Gray began to write in a similar style. In his works, he also paid great attention to the description of natural landscapes, as well as reflections on the difficult life of ordinary peasants. Important figures in this movement in England were Laurence Sterne and Samuel Richardson.

The development of sentimentalism in French literature is associated with the names of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Jacques de Saint-Pierre. The peculiarity of the French sentimentalists was that they described the feelings and experiences of their heroes against the backdrop of beautiful natural landscapes: parks, lakes, forests.

European sentimentalism as a literary trend also quickly exhausted itself, however, the trend opened the way to the further development of world literature.

Instructions

Literary scholars consider the origins of sentimentalism to be the philosophical direction that received sensationalism. His followers put forward the idea that the world around us is a reflection of human feelings. Only with the help of emotions can life be realized. Natural human feelings became for sentimentalists the basis on which the narrative was built.

At the center of sentimentalism is the “natural” person, the bearer of all the diversity of emotions. Sentimentalist authors believed that man is a creation of nature, and therefore has sensuality and virtue from birth. Sentimentalists derived the virtues of their heroes and the nature of their actions from a high degree of sensitivity to the events of the surrounding world.

Sentimentalism originated on British shores at the beginning of the 18th century, and by the middle of the century it had spread throughout the European continent, displacing traditional classicism. The brightest of this new literary movement created their own in England, France and Russia.

Sentimentalism began its journey as a literary movement in English lyric poetry. One of the first to abandon the characteristic heavy urban motifs was James Thomson, who made the nature of the British Isles the subject of consideration. The subtle sentimental lyrics of Thomson and his followers followed the path of increasing pessimism and reflected the illusory nature of earthly existence.

Under the influence of the ideas of sentimentalism, Samuel Richardson broke with adventure works. In the middle of the 18th century, this English writer introduced sentimental traditions into the genre of the novel. One of Richardson's discoveries is the depiction of the world of the characters' feelings in the form of a novel in letters. This form of storytelling subsequently became very popular among those who sought to convey the depth of human experience.

The most prominent representative of classical French sentimentalism was Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The content of his literary creations was the combination of the concept of nature with the image of a “natural” hero. At the same time, nature for Rousseau was an independent object with its own value. The writer took sentimentalism to the absolute limit in his “Confession,” which is considered one of the most frank autobiographies in literature.

Sentimentalism entered Russia later, towards the end of the 18th century. The basis for its development in Russian literature were translations of the works of English, French and German sentimentalists. The heyday of this trend is traditionally associated with the work of N.M. Karamzin. His novel “Poor Liza,” which was sensational in its time, is considered a true masterpiece of Russian “sensitive” prose.

SENTIMENTALISM(French Sentiment ) direction in European literature and art of the second half of the 18th century, formed within the framework of the late Enlightenment and reflecting the growth of democratic sentiments of society. Originated in lyric poetry and novel; later, penetrating into theatrical art, it gave impetus to the emergence of the genres of “tearful comedy” and bourgeois drama.Sentimentalism in literature. Philosophical origins Sentimentalism goes back to sensationalism, which put forward the idea of ​​a “natural”, “sensitive” (knowing the world with feelings) person. By the beginning of the 18th century. ideas of sensationalism penetrate into literature and art.

The “natural” man becomes the protagonist of sentimentalism. Sentimentalist writers proceeded from the premise that man, being a creation of nature, from birth possesses the inclinations of “natural virtue” and “sensibility”; The degree of sensitivity determines the dignity of a person and the significance of all his actions. Achieving happiness as the main goal of human existence is possible under two conditions: the development of human natural principles (“education of feelings”) and staying in the natural environment (nature); merging with her, he finds inner harmony. Civilization (the city), on the contrary, is a hostile environment for it: it distorts its nature. The more social a person is, the more empty and lonely he is. Hence the cult of private life, rural existence, and even primitiveness and savagery characteristic of sentimentalism. Sentimentalists did not accept the idea of ​​progress, fundamental to the encyclopedists, looking with pessimism at the prospects for social development. The concepts of “history”, “state”, “society”, “education” had a negative meaning for them.

Sentimentalists, unlike classicists, were not interested in the historical, heroic past: they were inspired by everyday impressions. The place of exaggerated passions, vices and virtues was taken by human feelings familiar to everyone. The hero of sentimentalist literature is an ordinary person. Mostly this is a person from the third estate, sometimes of a low position (maidservant) and even an outcast (robber), in the richness of his inner world and purity of feelings he is not inferior to, and often superior to, representatives of the upper class. The denial of class and other differences imposed by civilization constitutes democratic (egalitarian)

pathos of sentimentalism.

Turning to the inner world of man allowed sentimentalists to show its inexhaustibility and inconsistency. They abandoned the absolutization of any one character trait and the unambiguous moral interpretation of the character characteristic of classicism: a sentimentalist hero can commit both bad and good deeds, experience both noble and base feelings; sometimes his actions and desires do not lend themselves to a simple assessment. Since man is inherently good by nature

the beginning and evil are the fruit of civilization, no one can become a complete villain he always has a chance to return to his nature. Retaining hope for human self-improvement, they remained, with all their pessimistic attitude towards progress, in the mainstream of enlightenment thought. Hence the didacticism and sometimes pronounced tendentiousness of their works.

The cult of feelings has determined high degree subjectivism. This direction is characterized by an appeal to genres that most fully allow to show the life of the human heart, elegy, novel in letters, travel diary, memoirs, etc., where the story is told in the first person. Sentimentalists rejected the principle of “objective” discourse, which implies the removal of the author from the subject of the image: the author’s reflection on what is being described becomes the most important element of the narrative for them. The structure of the essay is largely determined by the will of the writer: he does not so strictly follow established literary canons that fetter the imagination, he builds the composition rather arbitrarily, and is generous with lyrical digressions.

Born on British shores in the 1710s, sentimentalism became floor. 18th century a pan-European phenomenon. Most clearly manifested in English

, French, German and Russian literature. Sentimentalism in England. Sentimentalism first made itself known in lyric poetry. Poet trans. floor. 18th century James Thomson abandoned the urban motifs traditional for rationalist poetry and made English nature the object of his depiction. Nevertheless, he does not completely depart from the classicist tradition: he uses the genre of elegy, legitimized by the classicist theorist Nicolas Boileau in his Poetic art(1674), however, replaces the rhymed couplets with blank verse, characteristic of Shakespeare's era.

The development of the lyrics follows the path of strengthening the pessimistic motives already heard in D. Thomson. The theme of the illusory and futility of earthly existence triumphs in Edward Jung, the founder of “graveyard poetry.” Poetry of the followers of E. Jung Scottish pastor Robert Blair (16991746), author of a gloomy didactic poem grave(1743), and Thomas Gray, creator (1749), is permeated with the idea of ​​equality of all before death.

Sentimentalism expressed itself most fully in the genre of the novel. Its founder was Samuel Richardson, who, breaking with the picaresque and adventure tradition, turned to depicting the world of human feelings, which required the creation of a new form of the novel in letters. In the 1750s, sentimentalism became the main focus of English educational literature. The work of Lawrence Sterne, considered by many researchers to be the "father of sentimentalism", marks the final departure from classicism. (Satirical novel Life and opinions of Tristram Shandy, gentleman(17601767) and novel Mr. Yorick's Sentimental Journey through France and Italy(1768), from which the name of the artistic movement came).

Critical English sentimentalism reaches its peak in creativity Oliver Goldsmith.

The 1770s saw the decline of English sentimentalism. The genre of sentimental novel ceases to exist. In poetry, the sentimentalist school gives way to the pre-romantic school (D. Macpherson, T. Chatterton).Sentimentalism in France. In French literature, sentimentalism expressed itself in classical form. Pierre Carlet de Chamblen de Marivaux stands at the origins of sentimental prose. ( Life of Marianne , 17281741; And Peasant going public , 17351736). Antoine-François Prevost d'Exile, or Abbe Prevost opened for the novel new area feelings an irresistible passion that leads the hero to life catastrophe.

The culmination of the sentimental novel was the work of Jean-Jacques Rousseau

(17121778). The concept of nature and “natural” man determined the content of his artistic works (for example, the epistolary novel Julie, or New Heloise , 1761). J.-J. Rousseau made nature an independent (intrinsically valuable) object of image. His Confession(17661770) is considered one of the most frank autobiographies in world literature, where he brings the subjectivist attitude of sentimentalism to the absolute ( work of art as a way of expressing the author’s “I”).

Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre (1737-1814), like his teacher J.-J. Rousseau, considered the main task of the artist to affirm the truth - happiness lies in living in harmony with nature and virtuously. He sets out his concept of nature in his treatise Sketches about nature(17841787). This theme receives artistic embodiment in the novel Paul and Virginie(1787). Depicting distant seas and tropical countries, B. de Saint-Pierre introduces a new category “exotic”, which will be in demand by romantics, primarily Francois-René de Chateaubriand.

Jacques-Sebastien Mercier (17401814), following the Rousseauist tradition, makes the central conflict of the novel Savage(1767) the collision of the ideal (primitive) form of existence (the “golden age”) with the civilization that is corrupting it. IN utopian novel2440, what a dream there are few(1770), based on Social contract J.-J. Rousseau, he constructs an image of an egalitarian rural community in which people live in harmony with nature. S. Mercier also presents his critical view of the “fruits of civilization” in journalistic form in an essay Painting of Paris (1781). The work of Nicolas Retief de La Bretonne (1734-1806), a self-taught writer, author of two hundred volumes of works, is marked by the influence of J.-J. Rousseau. In the novel The Corrupt Peasant, or The Dangers of the City(1775) tells the story of the transformation, under the influence of the urban environment, of a morally pure young man into a criminal. Utopian novel Southern opening(1781) treats the same theme as 2440 S. Mercier. IN New Emile, or Practical Education(1776) Retief de La Bretonne develops the pedagogical ideas of J.-J. Rousseau, applying them to women's education, and argues with him. Confession J.-J. Rousseau becomes the reason for the creation of his autobiographical essay Mister Nikola, or the Human Heart Unveiled(17941797), where he turns the narrative into a kind of “physiological sketch.”

In the 1790s, during the era of the Great French Revolution sentimentalism is losing its position, giving way to revolutionary classicism

. Sentimentalism in Germany. In Germany, sentimentalism was born as a national-cultural reaction to French classicism, the creativity of English and French sentimentalists played a certain role in its formation. Significant merit in the formation of a new view of literature belongs to G.E. Lessing.The origins of German sentimentalism lie in the polemics of the early 1740s between Zurich professors I. J. Bodmer (1698-1783) and I. J. Breitinger (1701-1776) with a prominent apologist of classicism in Germany I. K. Gottsched (1700-1766); The “Swiss” defended the poet’s right to poetic imagination. The first major exponent of the new direction was Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, who found common ground between sentimentalism and the German medieval tradition.

The heyday of sentimentalism in Germany occurred in the 1770s and 1780s and is associated with the Sturm und Drang movement, named after the drama of the same name

Sturm und Drang F.M.Klinger (17521831). Its participants set themselves the task of creating an original national German literature; from J.-J. Rousseau, they adopted a critical attitude towards civilization and the cult of the natural. Sturm und Drang theorist and philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder criticized the “boastful and sterile education” of the Enlightenment, attacked the mechanical use of classicist rules, arguing that true poetry is the language of feelings, first strong impressions, fantasy and passion, such a language is universal. “Stormy geniuses” denounced tyranny and protested against the hierarchy of modern societyand his morals ( Tomb of the Kings K.F.Shubart, To freedom F.L. Shtolberg and others); their main character was a freedom-loving woman strong personality Prometheus or Faust driven by passions and not knowing any barriers.

In his youth he belonged to the “Storm and Drang” movement Johann Wolfgang Goethe. His novel The sufferings of young Werther(1774) became a landmark work of German sentimentalism, defining the end of the “provincial stage” of German literature and its entry into pan-European literature.

Dramas are marked by the spirit of Sturm and Drang Johann Friedrich Schiller

. Sentimentalism in Russia. Sentimentalism penetrated into Russia in the 1780s and early 1790s thanks to translations of novels Werther I.V.Goethe , Pamela , Clarissa and Grandison S. Richardson, New Heloise J.-J. Rousseau, Paula and Virginie J.-A. Bernardin de Saint-Pierre. Opened the era of Russian sentimentalism Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin Letters from a Russian traveler(17911792). His novel Poor Lisa (1792) a masterpiece of Russian sentimental prose; from Goethe's Werther it inherited the general atmosphere of sensitivity and melancholy and the theme of suicide.

The works of N.M. Karamzin gave rise to a huge number of imitations; at the beginning of the 19th century appeared Poor Masha A.E.Izmailova (1801), Journey to Midday Russia

(1802), Henrietta, or The Triumph of Deception over the Weakness or Delusion of I. Svechinsky (1802), numerous stories by G. P. Kamenev ( The story of poor Marya ; Unhappy Margarita; Beautiful Tatiana) etc.

Ivan Ivanovich Dmitriev belonged to Karamzin’s group, which advocated the creation of a new poetic language and fought against the archaic pompous style and outdated genres.

Marked by sentimentalism early work Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky. Publication in 1802 translation Elegy written in a rural cemetery E. Gray became a phenomenon in the artistic life of Russia, because he translated the poem

“into the language of sentimentalism in general, he translated the genre of elegy, and not the individual work of an English poet, which has its own special individual style” (E.G. Etkind). In 1809 Zhukovsky wrote a sentimental story Maryina Roshcha in the spirit of N.M. Karamzin.

Russian sentimentalism had exhausted itself by 1820.

It was one of the stages of the pan-European literary development, which ended the Age of Enlightenment and opened the way to romanticism

. Evgenia KrivushinaSentimentalism in the theater (French sentiment feeling) direction in European theatrical art of the second half of the 18th century.

The development of sentimentalism in the theater is associated with the crisis of the aesthetics of classicism, which proclaimed a strict rationalistic canon of drama and its stage embodiment. The speculative constructions of classicist drama are being replaced by the desire to bring theater closer to reality. This is reflected in almost all components of theatrical performance: in the themes of plays (reflection of private life, development of family

- psychological stories); in language (classicist pathetic poetic speech is replaced by prose, close to conversational intonation); in the social affiliation of the characters (the heroes of theatrical works are representatives of the third estate) ; in determining the locations of action (palace interiors are replaced by “natural” and rural views).

“Tearful comedy” an early genre of sentimentalism appeared in England in the work of playwrights Colley Cibber ( Love's last trick

1696; Carefree spouse, 170 4, etc.), Joseph Addison ( Atheist, 1714; Drummer, 1715), Richard Steele ( Funeral, or Fashionable sadness, 1701; The Liar Lover, 1703; Conscientious Lovers, 1722, etc.). These were moralizing works, where the comic element was successively replaced by sentimental and pathetic scenes and moral and didactic maxims. The moral charge of the “tearful comedy” is based not on the ridicule of vices, but on the chanting of virtue, which awakens both individual heroes and society as a whole to correct shortcomings.

The same moral and aesthetic principles were the basis for the French “tearful comedy”. Its most prominent representatives were Philippe Detouche ( Married Philosopher

, 1727; Proud man, 1732; Spendthrift, 1736) and Pierre Nivelle de Lachausse ( Melanida , 1741; Mothers' School, 1744; Governess, 1747, etc.). Some criticism of social vices was presented by playwrights as temporary delusions of the characters, which they successfully overcome by the end of the play. Sentimentalism was also reflected in the work of one of the most famous French playwrights of that time Pierre Carle Marivaux ( Game of love and chance, 1730; Celebration of love, 1732; Inheritance, 1736; Sincere, 1739, etc.). Marivaux, while remaining a faithful follower of salon comedy, at the same time constantly introduces into it features of sensitive sentimentality and moral didactics.

In the second half of the 18th century. " tearful comedy", remaining within the framework of sentimentalism, is gradually being replaced by the genre of bourgeois drama. Here the elements of comedy completely disappear; The plots are based on tragic situations everyday life third estate. However, the problematic remains the same as in the “tearful comedy”: the triumph of virtue, overcoming all trials and tribulations. In this single direction, bourgeois drama is developing in all European countries: England (J. Lillo,

The Merchant of London, or the Story of George Barnwell; E.Moore, Player); France (D. Diderot, The Bastard, or The Trial of Virtue; M. Seden, Philosopher, without knowing it); Germany (G.E. Lessing, Miss Sarah Sampson, Emilia Galotti). From the theoretical developments and dramaturgy of Lessing, which received the definition of “philistine tragedy,” the aesthetic movement of “Storm and Drang” arose (F. M. Klinger, J. Lenz, L. Wagner, I. V. Goethe, etc.), which reached its peak development in creativity Friedrich Schiller ( The Robbers, 1780; Deceit and love, 1784). Theatrical sentimentalism became widespread in Russia. For the first time appearing in creativity Mikhail Kheraskov ( Friend of the unfortunate, 1774; Persecuted, 1775), the aesthetic principles of sentimentalism were continued by Mikhail Verevkin ( That's how it should be , Birthday people, Exactly), Vladimir Lukin ( Mot, corrected by love), Pyotr Plavilshchikov ( Bobyl , Sidelets, etc.).

Sentimentalism gave a new impetus to the art of acting, the development of which in in a certain sense was inhibited by classicism. The aesthetics of the classicist performance of roles required strict adherence to the conventional canon of the entire set of means of acting expression; the improvement of acting skills proceeded rather along a purely formal line. Sentimentalism gave actors the opportunity to turn to the inner world of their characters, to the dynamics of image development, the search for psychological persuasiveness and versatility of characters.

By the middle of the 19th century. the popularity of sentimentalism faded away, the genre of bourgeois drama practically ceased to exist. However, the aesthetic principles of sentimentalism formed the basis for the formation of one of the youngest theatrical genres - melodrama

. Tatiana ShabalinaLITERATURE Bentley E. Life of drama. M., 1978
Dvortsov A.T. Jean-Jacques Rousseau. M., 1980
Atarova K.N. Laurence Stern and his "Sentimental Journey". M., 1988
Dzhivilegov A., Boyadzhiev G. History of Western European theater. M., 1991
Lotman Yu.M. Rousseau and Russian culture XVIII – early XIX century. ¶ In the book: Lotman Yu. M. Selected articles: In 3 vols, vol. 2. Tallinn, 1992
Kochetkova I.D. Literature of Russian sentimentalism. St. Petersburg, 1994
Toporov V.N. “Poor Liza” by Karamzin. Reading experience. M., 1995
Bent M. "Werther, rebel martyr..." Biography of one book. Chelyabinsk, 1997
Kurilov A.S. Classicism, romanticism and sentimentalism (On the issue of concepts and chronology of literary and artistic development). Philological sciences. 2001, No. 6
Zykova E.P. Epistolary culture of the 18th century. and Richardson's novels. World tree. 2001, No. 7
Zababurova N.V. The poetic as the sublime: Abbé Prévost translator of Richardson's Clarissa. In the book: XVIII century: the fate of poetry in the era of prose. M., 2001
Western European theater from the Renaissance to the turn XIX-XX centuries Essays. M., 2001
Krivushina E.S. The union of the rational and the irrational in the prose of J.-J. Rousseau. In the book: Krivushina E.S. French literature of the 17th-20th centuries: Poetics of the text. Ivanovo, 2002
Krasnoshchekova E.A. “Letters of a Russian Traveler”: Problems of Zhenra ( N.M. Karamzin and Laurence Stern). Russian literature. 2003, no. 2